NEW DELHI: The story of India's independence from colonial rule is one of exhilaration and pain at the same time, the eventual embrace of fate, and, above all, hope and determination to thrive despite the historical cards dealt. As the country enters the 76th year of independence, a bit of looking back at how it came about, the framing of the Constitution that has stood the test of time despite the occasional knocks it takes, and the eventual declaration of the Indian Republic, ought to make us appreciate the value of that hard-fought independence.
We pick up the threads from the Indian Independence Act, which gave legislative shape to the decision to vivisect India. Partition on religious lines was in the works much before Mountbatten arrived in India in 1947. Maps were drawn and redrawn but there was no meeting ground between the Indian side represented by the Congress and the Muslim League, the proponent of Pakistan. Mountbatten's arrival expedited Britain's exit. The Indian Independence Act was ratified by the British Parliament and granted royal assent on July 18, 1947. After nearly two centuries of British colonial rule, the Act set the date for India's freedom as August 15, 1947. Pakistan was accorded independence a day earlier so as to facilitate Mountbatten's participation in the ceremonies of both countries.
Defining borders
The complex process of demarcating borders between India and Pakistan - particularly in Punjab and Bengal - was done in a hurry in just a month. All stakeholders wanted to wrap it up before independence day though they did not have the expertise to do so. They all knew it would lead to humongous human displacement and unprecedented bloodletting and communal riots but figured it was unavoidable. In the end, an estimated 1-2 million people were massacred in the riots that followed and over 15 million others were uprooted due to partition.
The task to draw boundary lines in Punjab and Bengal was given to Sir Cyril Radcliffe, a British jurist. He headed two boundary commissions, one for Punjab and the other for Bengal though he had no prior knowledge of India. His arrival in the country on July 8, 1947, was his first-ever trip this side. There were some who thought his unfamiliarity would make him a neutral arbitrator. Each commission had five members, all jurists - two each from the Hindu side and the Muslim League besides Radcliffe. In other words, Radcliffe had the deciding vote on all matters, which he used at his whim. He did his cartography - the Radcliffe line - that was not always based on demographic data without ever visiting the lands he mechanically split. His maps for the two states were ready by August 9 and 14 but were made public two days after independence on August 17.
Challenges of princely states
The partition of India and the question of integrating princely states were intertwined. Before partition, there were over 550 princely states that had a semi-autonomous status. The Indian Independence Act gave them the choice to align with India or Pakistan or stay independent. The decision had to be made depending on the geographical contiguity and the preferences of their populations. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, India's deputy prime minister, integrated most of the princely states with the Indian Union. Through a combination of diplomatic negotiation, persuasion, and, in some cases, military intervention, he nudged them towards Indian rule with the promise of privy purses. However, the princely states of Hyderabad and Junagadh didn't want to play ball.
Junagadh in present-day Gujarat was ruled by Nawab Muhammad Mahabat Khan III. Despite having a predominantly Hindu population, the Nawab chose to integrate with Pakistan, sparking widespread unrest. Indian forces intervened and a subsequent plebiscite saw Junagadh becoming part of the country. In Hyderabad, Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan aspired for independence but faced pressure due to his state's geographical location as well as its Hindu majority population. In September 1948, Patel launched a military operation, which resulted in the integration of Hyderabad with the Indian Union after a four-day war.
In Jammu and Kashmir, Maharaja Hari Singh was the ruler of the Muslim-majority state. He preferred independence but after tribal mercenaries sent by Pakistan invaded Kashmir, he acceded to India. A part of J&K was saved in that first Indo-Pak war.
Constitutional monarchy to democratic republic
With India attaining independence, a Constituent Assembly formed on December 9, 1946, by the interim government took charge of its governance. Its members served as the country's provisional Parliament till they drafted a new Constitution. The Constituent Assembly had 389 members representing various regions, communities and interests. Dr Rajendra Prasad served as its President and Dr B R Ambedkar chaired the drafting committee of the Constitution.
After the drafting committee put out an initial draft, the Constituent Assembly engaged in extensive debates on fundamental rights, citizenship, federal structure, representation, and more, to strike a balance between diverse interests. Drawing inspiration from a variety of sources, including the constitutions of other nations, principles of liberty, equality and fraternity, as well as the country's struggle for independence, the Indian Constitution emerged as one of the world's most lengthy and comprehensive documents.
The final draft was adopted on November 26, 1949. On January 26, 1950, at 10.18 am, the last Governor-General Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, proclaimed India as a Republic as the Constitution came into force at that moment. Dr Rajendra Prasad became the first President, taking the oath with a 31-gun salute. It signified India's shift from a constitutional monarchy to a democratic republic.
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Tricolour, National Anthem
Weeks before independence, on July 22, 1947, the Constituent Assembly chose the saffron-white-green Tricolour with the Ashoka Chakra at the centre as the national flag, replacing the spinning wheel in the Congress flag. On January 24, 1950, Dr Rajendra Prasad announced Jana Gana Mana as the National Anthem and Vande Mataram as the national song.
Linguistic identities
Amid the horrors of partition, young India's journey had just begun. There were fresh challenges, such as addressing the demands for carving out new states on linguistic lines. It culminated in the enactment of the State Reorganisation Act of 1956. Before this Act, state boundaries were often defined on historical and administrative considerations rather than linguistic or cultural affinities.
For example, Madras State, which encompassed parts of present-day Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Telangana, was broken up. Andhra Pradesh was initially carved out of Madras State on October 1, 1953, for its Telugu-speaking population. Three years later, it was amalgamated with Telangana (formerly part of Hyderabad State) in 1956, resulting in the creation of united Andhra Pradesh. States of united Andhra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala were created on November 1, 1956. But Andhra had an uneasy marriage and on June 2, 2014, Telangana broke off citing regional disparities and perceived neglect. The reorganisation of Bombay State, too, was propelled by linguistic disparities. It was split into Gujarat and Maharashtra on May 1, 1960. Other new states like Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand were created by and by.
Universal adult franchise
Among the perceptive bets, the Constituent Assembly took was to follow the principle of universal adult franchise despite widespread illiteracy among the masses. The inaugural general elections in India took place in 1951-1952 with all citizens aged 21 and above getting their right to vote. Contrast with countries like Switzerland which gave women voting rights only after a referendum in 1971, and the foresight of the Indian Constitution's founding fathers stands out as a beacon of wisdom.
Birth of Republic
July 16, 1947
Lords pass India Bill through all stages
The House of Lords passed the India Independence Bill through all its stages. Royal assent came two days later
July 22, 1947
Flag of free India
The Constituent Assembly decided that the national flag shall be saffron-white-green Tricolour, with an Ashoka wheel in the middle
July 22, 1947
Nehru Presents Free India’s Flag to Constituent Assembly
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru presents to the Constituent Assembly the flag of free India that has the Ashoka Chakra in place of the spinning
Aug 15, 1947
India celebrates freedom
India has awakened to her freedom. Immediately after the stroke of 12 midnight, the Constituent Assembly of India took over governance of the country
Nov 26, 1949
New Constitution adopted
The Constituent Assembly passed the Constitution at 11.10 am with only one dissenting voice. Dr Rajendra Prasad signed the Constitution at 11.12 am
Jan 26, 1950
Rajendra Prasad Babu elected as first President
Constituent Assembly unanimously elects Dr Rajendra Prasad as the first President of the Indian Republic to be inaugurated on January 26
Jan 24, 1950
Jana Gana Mana is National Anthem
President of the Constituent Assembly, Dr Rajendra Prasad, announced Jana Gana Mana as the national anthem and that Vande Mataram as national song
Jan 24, 1950
India Proclaimed as Sovereign
The birth of Indian sovereign democratic Republic proclaimed at 10.18 am by the last Governor General Chakravarti Rajagopalachari at the Durbar Hall at Government House