In today’s Trumpian world, the idea of erecting barriers to keep out foreign goods and people is gaining traction, and winning admirers among some influential leaders like Javier Milei of Argentina and Viktor Orbán of Hungary. However, Johan Norberg, a Swedish historian, presents a compelling counter-argument in his new book, Peak Human. Norberg explores the rise and fall of golden ages across various civilisations over the past three millennia, from Athens to the Anglosphere and the Abbasid caliphate. His research reveals that societies which thrived were those that embraced openness—welcoming trade, strangers, and innovative ideas. Conversely, when these societies closed themselves off, they lost their dynamism and prosperity.
One striking example, he argues, is the Song dynasty in China, which lasted 960- 1279 CE. The Song emperors prioritised the rule of law and meritocracy, hiring officials through competitive exams and enacting policies that promoted fairness and stability. Peasants were granted property rights and freedom of movement, leading to increased agricultural productivity and the growth of cities. Kaifeng, the capital, became a bustling metropolis with a population far exceeding that of London at the time. The Song dynasty also fostered domestic and international trade, with merchants issuing paper money and artisans developing new industrial processes. This openness to trade and innovation created a vibrant economy and a rich cultural exchange.
However, the ascent of the Ming emperors turned China inward. They ended free movement, imposed forced labour, and severely restricted foreign trade. These reactionary policies led to a significant decline in Chinese incomes and stifled the country’s progress until it reopened in the late 20th century.
Norberg’s analysis extends to other historical golden ages. Athens flourished not only as the birthplace of democracy but also as a liberal society with low tariffs and a welcoming attitude towards foreigners. Rome grew strong by integrating conquered peoples, learning from them, and maintaining a vast network of roads that facilitated trade and communication. Both civilisations demonstrated that openness to diverse ideas and people was a key factor in their success.
Norberg, sadly, does not refer to any Indian examples. But India’s rich history offers numerous examples of openness leading to prosperity. This openness took various forms, including extensive trade, religious tolerance, and intellectual exchange. By engaging with external ideas, technologies, and people, various empires and movements not only enriched their own cultures but also stimulated economic growth.
The Mauryan empire (circa 322-185 BCE) provides an early example. After unifying a large part of the subcontinent, the empire’s stability allowed for the expansion of both internal and external trade. The Mauryans were able to create an extensive network of roads, including the famous Uttarapath, which connected the Gangetic plains to central and western Asia. These land and sea routes facilitated a booming trade of Indian goods like spices, silk, and cotton to the Hellenistic kingdoms and beyond. The resulting wealth supported a stable and centralised administration. The Mauryan period, especially under Ashoka, saw a remarkable flowering of culture. Ashoka’s policy of dhamma (moral law) promoted religious tolerance, allowing Buddhism, Jainism, and various Hindu traditions to coexist and thrive.
The Gupta empire (c 320-550 CE), often called the ‘golden age of India’, owed its success to a culture of intellectual and economic openness. The Guptas maintained robust trade links with southeast Asia, China, and the Roman empire. Their control over key trade routes and a stable currency led to significant wealth. This prosperity allowed the rulers to become major patrons of the arts and sciences, with monumental advancements in various fields.
Astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata developed the concept of zero and a sophisticated understanding of planetary motion, ideas that were later transmitted to West Asia and Europe. Kalidasa produced timeless literary works like Shakuntala. The flourishing of temple architecture, intricate sculpture, and vibrant fresco paintings—such as those at the Ajanta caves—were a direct result of the intellectual and financial capital available during this period.
The Chola dynasty, which flourished from the 9th to 13th centuries, is another prime example of how openness can lead to prosperity and cultural advancement. Under rulers like Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, the Chola empire expanded significantly, encompassing territories in Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and parts of southeast Asia. Renowned for their maritime prowess and extensive trade networks, the Cholas established strong commercial ties with southeast Asia, China, and the Arabian peninsula, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies. This openness to international trade contributed to the empire’s economic prosperity.
The Chola rulers’ open meritocratic system for selecting officials, similar to the Song dynasty’s in China, ensured that capable individuals were appointed to key administrative positions, promoting efficient governance and stability. The empire’s openness to diverse cultural influences enriched its intellectual and artistic heritage. The Cholas patronised poets, scholars, and artists, fostering a vibrant cultural environment that produced enduring works of literature and art. Indians have the prime example of the Cholas to underscore the importance of openness in achieving and sustaining prosperity and cultural advancement.
The Mughal empire (1526-1857 CE) exemplified how a synthesis of diverse cultures could lead to unparalleled prosperity and artistic innovation. Though founded by a central Asian dynasty, its long-term success was built on complete assimilation with the local Indian population. The Mughals standardised currency, built extensive road networks, and maintained relative peace across the empire, which spurred economic activity, including strong trade ties with Europe.
Akbar’s policy of Sulh-e-Kul (peace with all) was a prime example of this openness. He abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims, encouraged interfaith dialogue, and included Hindus in high-ranking administrative positions. This syncretic approach led to the Indo-Persian cultural blend seen in architecture, miniature paintings, music, and cuisine. The Bhakti and Sufi movements in medieval India, which emphasised personal devotion and transcended religious boundaries, also flourished during this time, when the ‘Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb’ enriched the cultural fabric.
Though it omits all these Indian examples, Norberg’s book is timely, as it highlights the importance of openness in fostering prosperity and innovation. The greatest golden age is arguably the present, with significant progress in human living standards occurring since 1990. This era of globalisation has brought unprecedented opportunities for collaboration and growth. However, the current tendencies towards isolationism, protectionism and suppression of free inquiry threaten to undermine these achievements.
History teaches us that open societies are more likely to thrive, while closed societies risk stagnation and decline. By embracing openness, we in India can continue to build a prosperous and dynamic future. Narrow-mindedness, bigotry, or a closed and xenophobic approach will only hurt us. As Norberg argues, “Failure is not a fate, but a choice.”
Shashi Tharoor | Fourth-term Lok Sabha MP, Chairman of Standing Committee on External Affairs, and Sahitya Akademi-winning author of 24 books
(Views are personal)
(office@tharoor.in)