India is among few countries to boast of an ancient theatre tradition. Many scholars suggest that Indian theatre originated from the Vedas. A B Keith provides evidence from Rigveda, where the emotionally charged dialogue between the twin siblings Yama and Yami prophesies the drama tradition. The same canto of Rigveda gives another conversation between Pururavas and Urvasi, which later became the nucleus of the full-length Kalidasa play, Vikramorvasiya.
Legend has it that Brahma took paathya (speech) or vacika (vocal) from Rigveda, gaana (music) from Samaveda, abhinaya (acting) from Yajurveda and rasas (aesthetics) from Atharva Veda and created Natyaveda. Natya Sastra adds that Bharata introduced lasya and tandava to increase performance quality following Lord Siva's advice. Though Natya Satra credits Bharata as the innovator of theatre, Panini (6th century BCE), in his book Ashtadhyayi mentions Natasutra, a text on dramaturgy. Thus, the theatre tradition may have existed before Bharata, probably before the Vedic period.
The great playwrights provided impetus to the Sanskrit theatre tradition. Kalidasa paid respect to his predecessors like Bhasa and Soumilla. Though we have little evidence of the plays by Soumilla, the discovery of 13 plays by Ganapati Sastri in 1913 from Thiruvananthapuram revealed Bhasa's dramatic repertoire. Interestingly, none of the 13 plays had the name of the author as Bhasa skips the Nandi portion completely, using the signature phrase like "naadyande tata pravishyati suthradhara" (after the Nandi enters Sutradhara). Ganapati Sastri could identify the plays as Bhasa's creations based on Rajasekhara's (9th century CE) references in Kavyamimamsa on Bhasa as the author of Svapnavasavadattam which was part of the 13 plays. Many playwrights came after Bhasa, including Kalidasa, Sudraka, Harsa, Visakhadatta, Mahendra Vikramavarman, and Kulasekhara Varman. Mahendra Vikramavarman, who authored Matthavilasa Prahasana, was a Pallava king and the patron of Bodhayana, the author of Bhagavat Ajjukeeyam.
Though Sanskrit literature glitters with their contribution, there is hardly any archaeological evidence of a structure we can call a theatre in ancient times. A B Keith and G K Bhatt refer to Ramgarh caves (also known as Jogimara and Sitabenge) in Chhattisgarh as a theatre thanks to the rock-cut benches outside the caves. Bhasa's and Kalidasa's plays would have had theatrical performances during their lifetime. They may have taken place in mandapas attached to temples, which, though different from Bharata's dictum, could explain the absence of specific structures in ancient India for enacting the plays. In Natya Sastra, Bharata describes in detail a design. However, the legendary performance of his play, Samudra Manthan, was performed in a temporary structure on the slopes of Kailasa Mountain. Bharata talks about three types of theatre in long, square and triangular shapes with specific seating arrangements for the four varnas in hierarchical order, with the highest varna sitting close to the ranga (stage). A curtain called yavanika separates the stage and the backroom (nepathya).
Bhasa's plays were discovered in Kerala due to the preservation of that manuscript for the Koodiyattam performances, which underlines the relevance of Koodiyattam. Koodiyattam strictly followed the prescriptions of Natya Sastra, and thus, the performances were usually time-taking. For example, Mantrankam, the play's third act by Bhasa, Pratinjnayaugandharayana, would take 41 days. The natya dharmi (stylised) mode of performance with a predominance of mudras (loosely translated as gestures) and the need for the ideal rasikas (connoisseurs or specialists) took the Koodiyattam tradition away from the common folk. There are theatres for Koodiyattam and Koothu performances, known as Koothambalams, found in many temples in Kerala.
The Koothambalams, built exclusively for Koodiyattams, remain as the treasure troves for understanding the recommendations of Natyasastra in the form of architecture. These structures also remain the sole vestiges of Sanskrit drama tradition in India. Most of the Kootthambalams in Kerala can be seen in the central region around Thrissur district. Chengannur and Harippad temples make the southern extreme, where one can see the Koothambalams, while Tiruvegappura in the Malappuram district creates the northern boundary. Karivellur temple (Kannur District) in north Kerala has Koothu as part of the temple ritual but not an exclusive Koothambalam.
The Kootthambalam at Vadakkunnatha Temple at Thrissur is a magnificent example of Koothambalam architecture, the design and construction of which is attributed to the legendary Sthapati of Kerala named Perunthacchan. Most of these Koothambalams are placed within the premises of the temple complexes, thus retaining exclusivity for the audiences belonging to the upper castes who were allowed inside the premises according to caste segregation laws that existed till the early 20th century in Kerala.
India's great Sanskrit theatre tradition might have lost its popularity due to the ascendance of vernacular languages as playwrights wrote plays inspired by Bhasa and Kalidasa, Bharata's Natya Sastra became more relevant in the domains of dance, and his rasa theory became part of visual art curriculum. The tradition of Sanskrit theatre, however, remained among the few practitioners performing in the dim light provided by the nilavilakku (lamp) in a Koothambalam in the exclusivity of the temple precinct somewhere in Kerala.
(jpoduval@gmail.com)
DR JAYARAM PODUVAL
Department of Art History & Aesthetics,
Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda