The concept of the female serpent deity is one of the most intricate and captivating figures in South Asian traditions. Terms such as naagini, naagayakshi, naagakanya, naagi and naagin are often used interchangeably, yet each holds some unique resonances shaped by region, belief system and time. While all evoke the powerful image of the serpentine feminine, they inhabit distinct cosmologies—some local, some scriptural and some shaped by modern fantasy.
Across these diverse portrayals, the feminine serpent—sometimes depicted as a full-bodied woman, sometimes as a hybrid with a serpent’s tail—depicts a bond with elemental forces—the earth, the water and the unseen realms. This deep connection often manifested in folklore, as Vogel [scholar] notes, through rich tales of mortal men enticed by the allure of serpent women, often culminating in romance or marriage. Even Kalidasa, in his epic Raghuvamsa, couldn’t resist this potent theme; he tells of Kusa, Raama’s own son and heir, whose destiny became entwined with Kumudvati, the youngest sister of the Naagaraaja Kumuda, through marriage. Travel north to the mist-shrouded mountains, and Kalhana’s Rajatarangini breathes life into a poignant Kashmiri legend—the whispered story of love igniting between Visakha and the ethereal Chandralekha, fair daughter of the Naaga Susravas.
Oldham [colonial writer] speculates these stories might reflect historical mingling between serpent-worshipping tribes and Aryan or Dravidian settlers—or perhaps they are simply projections of a deeper human fascination with the mystery and perceived power of the feminine divine or natural form.
Beyond these narrative speculations, the historical worship of serpent deities itself has ancient roots. There is no doubt that ophiolatry existed in India long before Buddhism spread widely.
Before the ninth century, female serpent deities were often not portrayed in human-like forms but rather represented through simple, potent objects like earthen pots (perhaps representing the womb) or basic effigies made from stone and clay. It wasn’t until around the ninth or tenth century that major sectarian traditions began personifying these snake goddesses more explicitly.
In Hinduism, Manasa emerged in human form; in Jainism, it was Padmavati; and in Buddhism, Janguli took shape as the protector against snakebites.
Naagayakshi—Guardian of the Sacred Grove
In the south, particularly in Kerala and Tulunadu, the naagayakshi is a revered household deity often found enshrined within the cool, damp earth of serpent groves (sarpakaavus). These sacred spaces merge the worship of tree spirits (Yakshas) and serpent deities, forming a deeply ecological and spiritual tradition. Here, the naagayakshi is invoked as a maternal guardian—a protective presence watching over the family, the land and the ancestral order in exchange for shelter and ritual reverence.
While male serpents are identified as naagaraajas, the female serpent deity is worshipped under names like naagayakshi, naagamma or naagi. And yet, her specific identity often remains elusive. Although Vasuki and Ananta are frequently named as presiding deities in these groves, the naagayakshi herself—her precise origin, her individual story—can be uncertain.
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Naagakanya—The Radiant Maidens of Paatala
The naagakanyas, or serpent maidens, are celestial beings described in the Shiva Puraana with skin like polished gold, radiant inhabitants of the subterranean realm of Paatala. They surround Ananta Shesha in constant veneration and are celebrated for their ethereal beauty and divine poise. Unlike naagayakshis, they may not be generally tied to specific groves or households but exist as part of a luminous, cosmic court.
Buddhist iconography adds an unexpected feature to these maidens—wings. These winged naagakanyas hover in the symbolic space between serpents (Naagas) and celestial birds (Suparnas like Garuda, traditionally their foes). The wings might represent a bridging of elements—earth and sky, water and air—or perhaps symbolise a deeper metaphysical transcendence. Their perpetual virginity is often emphasised in lore, adding to their otherworldly mystique.
Naagin—The Shapeshifter of the North
In north Indian folklore, naagins are typically conceived as ichchadhari beings—shape-shifting female serpents who can assume human form, often said to be attained after centuries of penance.
These naagins are deeply embedded in the cultural imagination, portrayed as figures of formidable power, both dangerously fierce and deeply alluring. They are believed to revert to their serpent form at least once a day, even while living among humans.
While rooted in folk tradition, these tales mirror the inherent duality of the serpent woman—mystical yet mortal, ascetic yet seductive. They often appear in stories as powerful protectors of treasure (like the fabled naagamani) and potent agents of vengeance when wronged or betrayed.
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In essence, the serpentine feminine weaves through the lore of the Indian subcontinent in varied and powerful forms. She is the nurturing, place-bound guardian embodied by the naagayakshi, the radiant celestial maiden or naagakanya dwelling in otherworldly realms, and the formidable, shapeshifting naagin of folklore, embodying both allure and peril. While modern interpretations may sometimes overshadow their deeper significance, these figures collectively represent profound connections to nature, divinity, ancestral power and the complex mysteries of feminine energy. Having explored the concept of the serpentine feminine, we now turn to meet some of these powerful figures individually, including notable female serpent deities described in the Puraanas and related lore of the subcontinent.
Excerpted with permission from Naaga: Discovering the Extraordinary World of Serpent Worship by K. Hari Kumar, published by HarperCollins Publishers