NEW DELHI: With pendency of cases spiraling in a country of 1.4 billion people, justice delayed is justice denied. What ails the justice delivery mechanism of the world’s largest democracy? The fourth edition of India Justice Report 2025, which ranks states on the capacity of police, judiciary, prisons and legal aid, portrays a worrying picture — the system continues to falter under the weight of systemic gaps, alarming shortfalls of people and deep-rooted inequalities. We have a police force that remains critically understaffed, a judiciary struggling to reflect the diversity it serves and a prison system buckling under the pressure of overcrowding and neglect.
With 23% vacancies in police ranks and a 50% shortfall in forensic staff, it's too tall an order to expect police to function effectively and uphold the rule of law. Despite a 2009 directive to ensure 33% reservation for women in police forces, no state or Union Territory has met the criteria. The reality is women comprise just 8% of senior officers in the force.
The judiciary fares no better. The judge-to-population ratio remains stagnant at 15 judges per 10 lakh people, far from the Law Commission’s recommendation of 50. Although women constitute 38% of the lower judiciary, they are grossly underrepresented in high courts at just 14%. And with only one state, Karnataka, meeting its quota for SC, ST, and OBC representation, one must ask: whose justice is being delivered? The crisis continues behind bars as well. Prison staff vacancies have soared to 30%, while overcrowding stands at 131%, fuelled by a 76% rise in the number of undertrials. Compounding this is a 38% drop in para legal volunteers, diminishing access to legal aid for those who need it most.
As per IJR, the overall top position in terms of justice delivery has been retained by Karnataka, followed by Andhra Pradesh, climbing from fifth in 2022 to second, Telangana (2022 ranking: 3rd), and Kerala (2022 ranking: 6th). Among the seven small states (with populations less than one crore each), Sikkim (2022: 1st) ranked first, followed by Himachal Pradesh (2022: 6th) and Arunachal Pradesh (2022: 2nd). Here's a look at how the states have fared.
Tamil Nadu
Ranked 5th overall among large states (down from 2nd in 2022), Tamil Nadu topped the prisons category for maintaining low undertrial share (61.5%), 77% occupancy, and improved staff-to-inmate ratio. The state is among the very few to meet the benchmark of six inmates per prison staff.
However, TN’s police ranking dropped to 13th due to under-utilisation of modernisation funds, no training budget, and a threefold increase in officer vacancies. Only 68% of police stations had CCTV coverage, below the national average of 83%, though the state led in the share of female police officers (20%).
In judiciary, while the state improved its per capita spend and reduced high court judge vacancies (from 28% to 13%), a rise in subordinate court judge and staff vacancies led to a slip from the 1st to 3rd position.
For TN, the IJR reiterated both immediate and foundational corrections - urgent filling of vacancies and increased representation. To effect irreversible change, it recommended that justice delivery be designated as an “essential service”.
Karnataka
Karnataka has emerged as the strongest performer across the board. It ranks in the top five in all four pillars of justice — police, judiciary, prisons, and legal aid. The state has the lowest officer-level police vacancies at just 1.2%, and constable-level vacancies were halved to 6% in 2023. Karnataka is the only state to fulfil SC, ST, and OBC quotas in both officer and constabulary positions. Almost all police stations have functional women help desks, indicating a gender-sensitive approach, although women make up only 9% of the police force. Karnataka also leads in the utilisation of police modernisation funds, spending 98.5% of its allocation.
In the judiciary, the state has fully met caste-based reservation requirements in the district judiciary and reduced judge vacancies at this level to 16%. Thirty-seven per cent of district court judges are women, while high court staff vacancies have dropped significantly. Karnataka’s prison system is ranked second nationally, with the highest representation of women in staff (33%) and high levels of video-conferencing facilities in jails. However, it still struggles with a 74% vacancy in medical officer posts. The state also tops the legal aid rankings, with the highest ratio of women panel lawyers and a sharp increase in paralegal volunteers. Still, its rural outreach has weakened due to a decline in legal clinics.
Kerala
Kerala ranks 4th in the IJR overall rankings, up from 6th in 2022, on the back of its top ranking in judiciary and strong prison management. The state’s high court has the lowest judge vacancy rate in the country at 4%, and nearly half of its district court judges are women. However, STs remain underrepresented in the judiciary, with an 84% vacancy against a 2% reservation mandate. In the police force, Kerala lags at 15th due to low diversity — only 3% of officers are women — despite low overall vacancy rates and near-full compliance with caste quotas. Prisons are well-managed with only 6% overcrowding and low staff shortages, though gaps remain in medical staffing. Legal aid remains a weak link, with declining outreach: the number of clinics dropped from 101 to 66 and only 24% of Lok Adalat cases were disposed of.
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana have emerged as top performers in the India Justice Report 2025, securing the 2nd and 3rd positions, respectively, among 18 large and mid-sized states. Both states demonstrated strong institutional commitment, robust infrastructure, and inclusive representation across the justice system. However, regional disparities in staffing and service delivery continue to hinder consistent access to justice.
Andhra Pradesh has made the most significant leap this year, rising from 5th in 2022 to 2nd in 2025. The state ranks 2nd in both the judiciary and police, while maintaining its 4th position in legal aid. Although the prison system lags at 10th, the state has made notable strides in representation and infrastructure. It is among the few to have fulfilled SC, ST, and OBC quotas in the district judiciary, and 42% of its district judges are women — well above the national average. However, its high court faces a 28% vacancy, and women constitute only 12% of its judges. In Andhra, all police stations are equipped with women’s help desks and CCTV cameras. Women account for 17% of the police force, and full caste representation has been achieved across ranks. But, its forensic labs face steep staff shortages with 56% of scientific and 22% of administrative posts vacant.
Telangana has retained its 3rd place overall and ranks among the top five states across judiciary, police and prisons. It leads the country in gender inclusion in the judiciary — 55% of its district court judges are women, the highest among large states. SC, ST, and OBC quotas in the district judiciary are fully met. The high court, however, shares Andhra Pradesh’s challenge of a 28% vacancy rate, and women account for just 12% of the police force. Around 85% of police stations are equipped with women’s help desks and CCTVs. Telangana’s prisons, ranked 6th, are equipped with video-conferencing in 86% of jails, easing case processing and transport burdens. Still, correctional staff vacancies remain high at 43%, and over half of medical posts are unfilled.
Both states have performed well in legal aid too — Telangana ranks 2nd and Andhra Pradesh 4th. Telangana has the highest share of women panel lawyers and has significantly expanded its pool of paralegal volunteers. Andhra Pradesh has a large number of legal aid clinics, but their reach remains uneven. Despite strong frameworks, both states face challenges in fund utilisation and case disposal rates in Lok Adalats.
Maharashtra
Maharashtra, now 10th overall (up from 12th in 2022), has improved its police ranking to 5th. The state hiked per capita police spending from Rs 1,234 to Rs 1,588 and increased CCTV coverage in police stations from 57% to 91%. Yet, gaps persist. Women help desks fell from 89% to 78%, and OBC officer vacancies rose steeply from 2% to 35%. The judiciary, despite low district judge vacancies (11%), has a case clearance rate of 87%, with 48% of cases pending for over three years.
In legal aid, Maharashtra spends just Rs 3.8 per capita, faring better only than Bihar and West Bengal. The number of rural legal aid clinics is dwindling. Prison overcrowding remains acute at 161%, with 80% of inmates being undertrials. Only 59 legal clinics serve 64 jails, highlighting legal aid shortfall behind bars.
Punjab
Punjab moved from 10th to 9th among large states. Its police ranking rose to 7th, led by India’s highest per capita police spend (Rs 2,604) and the best population-to-police ratio, 1:504 people. All police stations now have women’s help desks. Punjab also climbed in legal aid, from 9th to 2nd, with increased female representation among PLVs (39%), panel lawyers (24%), and District Legal Services Authorities (DLSA) secretaries (64%). It leads in NALSA fund utilisation.
On the flip side, HC judge vacancies doubled from 22% to 40%, and staff vacancies rose to 35%. A 67% case backlog over three years clogs the Punjab and Haryana High Court. Shortfall in court halls also grew from 15% to 24%. Punjab’s prison occupancy rose to 116%, with 23% of jails exceeding 150% capacity. Despite some reduction in medical and cadre staff vacancies, correctional staff positions remain vacant. At Rs 17,821 per inmate annually, the state is second only to Maharashtra in low prison spending.
Uttar Pradesh and MP
Uttar Pradesh moved from 18th to 17th overall among large states. Its judiciary remains overwhelmed, with the Allahabad High Court having over 11 lakh pending cases, as of January 2025, 71% older than three years. With over half the judicial posts vacant, the clearance rate is just 78%.
In district courts, 53% of cases remain pending beyond three years. The police force showed marginal improvements: constabulary and officer vacancies dropped to 28% and 42%, respectively. But forensic vacancies (50%) and poor representation of SC/ST officers—SC officer vacancies at 60%, ST at 88%—remain alarming. Prisons remain overcrowded, with staff vacancies at 28%, medical staff at 54%, and many jails housing over 250% of their sanctioned capacity. Legal aid remains severely underprovided, with just 120 clinics for 97,000 villages, one for every 815 villages. Though UP allocated 93% of its legal aid budget, it utilised just 60%, and NALSA fund utilisation dropped to 19%.
Madhya Pradesh ranks 7th, improving in prisons, legal aid, and judiciary. It has the lowest undertrial population (55%) and a 91.6% disposal rate in Lok Adalats. While district courts show improvement, the High Court has a 38% judge vacancy. Police and prison staff diversity remain poor, and overcrowding persists. Despite gains, structural challenges continue to hinder equitable justice delivery.
Haryana and Gujarat
Haryana has made modest progress, rising to 12th overall. It ranks 3rd in legal aid and has the highest per capita spend on it, but infrastructure such as legal aid clinics has vanished. Police services are weakened by the second-highest constable vacancy rate and poor quota compliance. The judiciary shows good gender representation, particularly in the High Court, but struggles with vacancies and inadequate infrastructure. In prisons, severe understaffing and overcrowding persist, with no correctional staff appointed despite sanctioned posts.
Gujarat’s justice system has slipped significantly, falling from 4th to 11th in the overall ranking. It has the highest judge vacancy in High Courts (38%) and nearly half of sanctioned staff posts are unfilled. Police rankings declined slightly, and while caste quotas for SCs are met, there are major gaps in ST and OBC representation. Women remain underrepresented, and there are notable shortages in forensic staffing. The prison system is overstretched with overcrowding and rising vacancies. Legal aid suffers from low utilisation despite high funding, with only one clinic for every 93 villages.
Chhattisgarh and Bihar
Chhattisgarh has climbed from 9th to 6th place, with strong gains in police and legal aid but critical gaps remain in judicial staffing and overcrowding in prisons. The state ranks 4th in the police pillar, with 100% police stations equipped with women's help desks. While OBC quotas are met, women make up only 8% of the police force, and 28% of constable posts remain vacant. The judiciary ranks 8th, with growing delays and an increase in judge vacancies, especially in the lower judiciary. Chhattisgarh’s prison system is under severe strain, with one-third of jails overcrowded and severe staffing shortages across officer, medical, and correctional staff. In legal aid, the state has improved its rank to 7th but has only one legal aid clinic for nearly 20,000 villages, pointing to severe rural access issues.
Bihar, ranked 13th overall, shows improvement in police services but continues to face issues in the judiciary and prisons. The police pillar helped Bihar rise to 10th position, with the state doubling its per capita spend on police training and leading the country in women’s representation (23.7%) in the police force. However, the utilisation of training budgets has declined sharply, and vacancies remain a concern. In judiciary, Bihar ranks 15th, with a 36% vacancy in High Court judges and the highest share of district cases pending for over three years. The state has the lowest per capita spend on judiciary. In prisons, unfilled vacancies have pushed the state to 12th place, though it maintains video conferencing facilities in all jails. Legal aid delivery is weak, ranking 12th, and despite a few improvements in clinics, both the SLSA and Permanent Lok Adalats reported no cases for 2023–24.
Among the seven small states (under one crore population), Himachal Pradesh surged to 2nd overall, ranking 2nd in prisons and 4th in the judiciary. In contrast, Meghalaya dropped to 5th, despite securing 3rd in the judiciary.
Smaller states consistently outspent the national average across the justice sector. In 2022-23, all seven states exceeded the average judiciary spend (Rs 182). Sikkim, already the top spender in 2017-18, nearly doubled its per capita judiciary expenditure to Rs 966. Even Meghalaya (Rs 246) crossed the national mark.
In policing, Arunachal Pradesh had the highest per capita spend at Rs 8,615, followed by other small states. Himachal Pradesh, the lowest spender among them at Rs 2,168, still outdid most large states.
On legal aid, five small states far exceeded the national average (Rs 6 per capita): Sikkim (Rs 109), Tripura (Rs 59), Mizoram (Rs 36), Goa (Rs 32) and Himachal (Rs 20). However, Meghalaya allocated just 52% of its sanctioned legal aid budget, the lowest among them.
Women representation
Sikkim and Telangana are the only two states nationwide to meet the 33% women representation in high courts. Conversely, Meghalaya and Tripura have had no women high court judges since 2018. On the positive side, the district judiciaries in Goa (70%), Meghalaya (61%), and Mizoram (51%) show strong female participation.
In police forces, Himachal Pradesh leads with 15% women officers, followed by Arunachal Pradesh and Goa at 11% each. Tripura lags at 6%.
Police staffing varies drastically. Sikkim reports a surplus, while Himachal Pradesh has the lowest vacancy (4.2%) among small states. Tripura (45%) and Arunachal Pradesh (37%) face the highest officer-level vacancies. High courts in Sikkim, Meghalaya and Tripura reported zero judge vacancies, but district courts still suffer. Meghalaya, Mizoram as well as Sikkim reported over one-third of judicial posts remaining vacant.
Though their prison populations are low, ranging from 260 in Sikkim to 2,528 in Himachal Pradesh, overcrowding and staff shortages persist. Except for Tripura, all reported overcrowded jails, with Meghalaya’s jails being the most strained.
The overall focus of the report is on one singular challenge: chronic under-resourcing of justice institutions. Whether it is the judiciary struggling under the burden of five crore pending cases, police departments operating with large vacancies, or prisons designed more for containment than rehabilitation, the reality is bleak. Budget allocations have increased over the years, yet their utilisation remains suboptimal. Without addressing structural inefficiencies, increased spending alone cannot translate into better outcomes.
How long will it take for women’s share in police to hit 33%?
Compared to IJR 2022, 22 states/UTs marginally improved representation of women in their police force in IJR 2025. Current rates remaining constant, Andhra Pradesh and Bihar would see 33% women in roughly three years. But Jharkhand, Tripura and Andaman and Nicobar Islands several generations to meet this quota
The bars show the number of years it would take for a state/UT to achieve 33% women representation in its police force at its current rate. States with green bars have made progress and reduced this period over IJR 2022. States with red bars have seen this period increase for them over IJR 2022. Figures show IJR 2025 value
Note: This calculation is based on the change in the share of women in police in the state/Union Territory during the five-year period from calendar year 2018 to 2022
