NEW DELHI: Even as the political blame game over the delay in implementing one-third quota for women in the legislature continues, experts and policymakers rue another glass ceiling that remains unbroken -- the abysmally low proportion of women employees in government-run enterprises.
The latest available government data shows that women constitute less than 10 per cent of the workforce in central public sector enterprises (CPSEs), and not even one in 10 manage to reach a supervisory role.
While still a far cry from adequate representation, in the private sector, nearly one-fourth of women hold managerial positions. Their proportion goes up to about one-third when it comes to entry-level roles, as per various surveys.
Overall, the female LFPR (Labour Force Participation Rate) in the country stands at little over 34 per cent, though it has fallen from 40 per cent at the end of financial year 2024-25, according to the government data.
The latest Public Enterprises Survey showed that women constituted 9.8 per cent of total employees in CPSEs at the end of FY 2024-25. The number decreased to 76,685 in FY2024-25 from 77,625 in FY2023-24. This number has remained below 10 per cent for several years.
The survey, released by the government, further said that 32.4 per cent of total women in CPSEs were present at managerial/executive level, while only 8.7 per cent were at supervisory level and 58.9 per cent in worker categories.
The women's representation at the supervisory level has fallen to 9 per cent in 2023-24 from 10.08 per cent in 2022-23.
YSR Congress Party MP Dr Gumma Thanuja Rani said the low representation of women in government-owned enterprises was a matter of concern, particularly when there is a continuing political debate over women's representation in Parliament and state legislatures.
"Women in this country have waited far too long for a fair chance -- for a seat in Parliament and a voice in the workplace," she told PTI.
The government and the opposition are blaming each other for the delay in implementing 33 per cent reservation for women in Lok Sabha and state assemblies.
Women's representation in Lok Sabha has increased from 5 per cent in the first Lok Sabha to 15 per cent in the current Lok Sabha. Besides, no state assembly has 20 per cent women representation, with some, such as in Himachal Pradesh, having as low as a single legislator.
"The real shock is in our own public sector where women are less than 10 per cent, and the number hasn't moved in over 10 years. And in supervisory roles, it's even worse," the YSR Congress MP said.
She said many public enterprises operate in male-dominated sectors such as mining and manufacturing, where rigid shifts, lack of flexible workplace policies and mandatory remote postings without safe housing or schools force women out mid-career.
She suggested setting clear, time-bound targets for women's hiring in every PSU and providing facilities such as creches, hostels, safe transport and flexible postings especially in mining and industrial PSUs.
"Make selection and promotion boards gender-balanced and transparent," she said, also calling for mandated paid "career re-entry" programmes and offering tax incentives to employers that provide flexible hours and childcare support for women returning after career breaks.
The sector-wise data also highlights an uneven distribution of women across CPSEs.
According to the survey, coal, telecommunications and information technology, and defence production were among the groups employing the highest number of women as a percentage of their total employees.
Speaking to PTI, activist Ranjana Kumari said the low representation of women in CPSEs needed to be examined alongside the nature of jobs women were doing in the wider economy.
She said CPSEs had traditionally been structured as male-dominated workplaces and women were concentrated at basic entry levels, with limited opportunities for promotion.
"Not just the nature and the percentage of jobs for women, but also the nature of jobs within these enterprises should be the reason for great concern," Kumari said.
She also flagged recruitment bias, transfer and posting policies, inadequate childcare and workplace conditions that were not sufficiently gender-sensitive.
"The whole idea of employing women remains to keep them in low-paid... and self-employed, unpaid family work," she said.
Kumari said the government needed to create an effective pipeline by providing women with industry-based training rather than limiting skill development to traditional areas.
She identified four key areas for improving women's participation and retention in formal employment -- "formal childcare, safe transport, skill training and social protection".
Poonam Muttreja, executive director of the Population Foundation of India (PFI), said the barriers to women's workforce participation were structural and should not simply be attributed to women's willingness to work.
She cited PFI's recent study, which found that women's workforce participation is constrained by disproportionate caregiving responsibilities, a lack of male participation in household work, restricted mobility, inadequate access to skills, limited job opportunities close to where women live, safety concerns while travelling for work and poor connectivity.
Muttreja also stressed the distinction between labour force participation and meaningful economic empowerment.
"Women are disproportionately concentrated in informal and insecure work, while many formal and traditionally male-dominated sectors remain difficult to enter," she said.
She called for market-linked skilling, affordable childcare, paid maternity and paternity leave, safe and flexible workplaces, safe transport and fair recruitment and promotion systems.
"It should not be up to only mothers to take leave when a child is sick, and employers can change that by allowing fathers to share those responsibilities," Muttreja said.
Dr Seema Bhaskaran, gender expert at Transform Rural India (TRI), said the patriarchal system in India creates structural barriers for girls and women, including limited access to quality and technical education, lack of occupational mobility, financial and emotional dependence on family members and social pressure to conform to prevailing social norms.
Bhaskaran said the lower participation of women in PSUs is partly a reflection of the sectors in which many CPSEs operate, including mining, coal, petroleum, steel, heavy engineering, power, transport and construction.
"This is compounded by gender biases around the roles and contributions of women and men, with women often being preferred for conventional and stereotypical roles," she said.
She also cited limited access to technical education and occupational mobility, besides gender biases, as factors restricting the pipeline of women entering such sectors.
On the gender gap in supervisory positions, she said patriarchal structures within CPSEs could affect women at various stages, from recruitment and entry to career progression.
"Skewed recruitment processes, male-dominated workplace cultures and work environments that are not sufficiently responsive to women's needs can make it more difficult for women to enter, remain and progress into supervisory and leadership positions," she said.
Bhaskaran called for an overhaul of male-dominated workplace cultures, fair promotion opportunities, on-the-job skill development, career enhancement opportunities and facilities such as creches.
She said meaningful gender equality at the workplace would mean equity in recruitment, promotion, skill development and career progression, along with a safe workplace free from sexist remarks, stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination.