In 2012, the Supreme Court directed states to obtain environmental clearance even for sand and gravel mining leases smaller than five hectares, warning that their combined impact could damage rivers and aquatic habitats. Fourteen years later, illegal mining remains a threat to river ecosystems. In the National Chambal Sanctuary, the Supreme Court is examining its impact on endangered aquatic species. A Supreme Court-appointed committee has now proposed a three-year plan to phase out unsustainable mining from active river channels and promote alternatives such as manufactured sand, recycled construction waste and sediment from dams. Can India make this transition without disrupting its construction industry?
Why has river sand become an environmental concern?
Rivers transport sand and gravel from upstream catchments and deposit them along their channels and floodplains. This replenishment maintains riverbeds. Unbridled mining strips this material faster than natural processes can replace it. This leads to a plethora of consequences. These include riverbed degradation, vulnerability of infrastructure, depletion of groundwater and aquifers, destruction of aquatic and riparian habitats, and changes in river morphology and hydrology. Riverbeds and adjoining aquifers often form an interconnected hydrological system. Mining near bridges can also expose their foundations to erosion. This process, known as scour, can weaken structural supports of bridges.
The consequences for wildlife can be equally serious. Sandbars and shallow channels provide nesting and breeding grounds for several aquatic species. The National Chambal Sanctuary illustrates the problem. The river system supports the endangered gharial, the Gangetic river dolphin and several species of freshwater turtles.
The Supreme Court took suo motu cognisance of illegal mining in the sanctuary on March 13, 2026, following reports of extensive damage to wildlife habitats. The proceedings involve Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. The court has since directed the states to strengthen surveillance and enforcement.
Why have regulations failed to curb illegal mining?
Sand is classified as a minor mineral under the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957. Its regulation and management largely fall within the jurisdiction of state governments.
The Union government has issued guidelines, but implementation depends on the administrative capacity and enforcement mechanisms of individual states. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change introduced the Sustainable Sand Mining Management Guidelines in 2016. These were followed by the Enforcement and Monitoring Guidelines in 2020. The guidelines require states to identify permissible mining areas. District Survey Reports are expected to identify suitable mining stretches and areas where extraction should be prohibited.
The CEC has pointed out that India does not have a consolidated database estimating the volume or value of illegally extracted river sand. The economic incentive for illegal mining is another problem. Restrictions on legal extraction can create supply shortages when construction demand remains unchanged. The resulting gap may encourage unauthorised mining.
Does the proposal mean a complete ban on river sand mining?
No. The CEC has recommended phasing out unsustainable extraction from active river channels over three years. The proposal is to progressively reduce dependence on active river channels by developing alternative supplies. It also recognises that legitimate construction requirements must be met during the transition.
Can manufactured sand replace natural river sand?
Manufactured sand, commonly called M-sand, is one of the principal alternatives proposed by the CEC. M-sand is produced by crushing suitable rocks and processing the particles to achieve the required size and grading. It can be used in concrete, mortar and other construction applications when it meets the relevant quality specifications. Furthermore, its production can be scaled according to demand in regions with suitable rock resources.
But quality matters. Crushed particles tend to have more angular shapes and rougher surfaces than naturally weathered sand.
Expanding production of M-sand will require investment in crushing and screening facilities, access to suitable rock deposits, transportation infrastructure and quality-control laboratories. There are environmental costs, too. Quarrying and crushing consume energy and generate dust, noise and waste. So, M-sand might be a viable alternative, but does not come with an environmental free pass.
Can construction waste become a source of sand?
The recycling of construction and demolition (C&D) waste is another important component of the CEC's proposal. India has strengthened its regulatory framework for this sector. The Environment (Construction and Demolition) Waste Management Rules, 2025, came into force on April 1, 2026. They provide for extended producer responsibility, recycling targets and an online monitoring system.
Delhi provides a useful test of how far this system has progressed. According to the Delhi Master Plan 2047 document, the capital generates around 5,500-6,000 tonnes of C&D waste daily. Four processing plants at Bakkarwala, Burari, Ranikhera and Shastri Park have a combined capacity of 5,000 tonnes per day. A fifth facility, expected to become functional by December this year, with a capacity of 1,000 tonnes per day, is being developed at the reclaimed Okhla dumpsite. The Municipal Corporation of Delhi has also established 125 primary C&D waste collection sites. These have been geo-mapped and are listed on its website.
An online Delhi Malba portal, introduced on March 9, 2026, connects waste generators, authorised transporters and processing plants. It is intended to track waste from collection to recycling.
The government has made the use of recycled C&D products mandatory in construction and maintenance works undertaken by the MCD, PWD and other government departments. The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs has also set targets for the use of recycled products.
But, it is largely believed that building recycling plants is only one part of the task. Government procurement can help create a market. But private construction companies must also be persuaded to use recycled products.
Can desilting dams and reservoirs provide enough sand?
The most ambitious part of the CEC's proposal is the recovery of sediment accumulated in dams and reservoirs. Dams trap sediment that would otherwise move downstream with river flows. Over time, this accumulation can reduce a reservoir's effective storage capacity and affect its ability to store water.
According to data from the Ministry of Jal Shakti placed before Parliament in December 2025, 439 reservoirs assessed in the country had lost an average of 19.24% of their gross storage capacity to sedimentation. Twenty-three had lost more than half their capacity.
The Gobind Sagar reservoir, formed by the Bhakra dam, offers a striking example. Its gross storage capacity has declined from 9,868 million cubic metres to around 7,300 million cubic metres, a reduction of approximately 26%. The CEC has recommended assessing all storage dams more than 15 years old that have not undergone systematic desiltation. It has proposed taking up approximately one-tenth of the reservoirs found suitable every year. Contracts for eligible projects should be awarded within the next three years. This would be followed by a structured 10-year desiltation cycle for reservoirs identified as suitable.
But reservoir sediment consists of clay, silt, sand and coarser particles. Its composition varies according to the geology of the catchment and the characteristics of the river. So, there is no point to assume that the entire chunk of the silt can be used to procure sand. Some material may require extensive processing. A committee headed by former Central Water Commission chairman B K Mittal had also examined the issue in 2022. Its assessment found large-scale desiltation technologically and economically difficult.
Who will pay for the transition, and who will enforce it?
The three-year roadmap will require coordination across states with different levels of sand availability, construction demand and enforcement capacity. The Centre can establish national standards, coordinate scientific assessments and facilitate alternative sources.
The first requirement is a reliable assessment of demand and supply. States need to establish how much sand the construction sector consumes, how much comes from permissible river mining and how much is supplied through alternatives.
The second is investment in processing capacity. M-sand plants, C&D recycling facilities and reservoir sediment recovery projects require land, machinery, technology and quality-control systems.
Pricing will also determine whether alternatives are adopted. If illegally extracted river sand remains cheaper because it avoids regulatory and environmental costs, construction companies may have little incentive to switch to certified alternatives.
The problem of illegal mining of sand has a long history here. The Supreme Court's 2012 order had already warned that several small mining operations could collectively cause substantial environmental damage. Yet, the country still lacks a reliable estimate of illegal river sand extraction.
The question, then, is not merely whether India can stop mining sand from its rivers in three years. It is whether the country can build a construction economy that no longer finds it cheaper to exhaust a river than to recycle what it has already used.