From working under Dr APJ Abdul Kalam on India’s early missile programmes to leading the Defence Research and Development Organisation, former DRDO chairman Dr G Satheesh Reddy has been at the forefront of the country’s defence trajectory. In an interaction with TNIE, he reflects on his journey, India’s growing self-reliance in defence technologies and the future of warfare.
Tell us about your journey from a remote village to becoming one of India's leading missile scientists
I was born into a lower-middle-class agricultural family in a very remote village in Nellore district. Until around Class 6, there was no electricity in our house and we studied under kerosene lanterns. My father was a farmer and could only read and write, and the same was true of my mother. Fortunately, our village had a school up to Class 10, so I completed my schooling there. My mother was the driving force in my life. In the 1970s, she dreamed that I should become an engineer, something no one from our village had achieved at that time.
I studied well and enjoyed a typical village upbringing. I spent time in the fields, with cows, buffaloes and oxen, and often chased birds away from crops. The village environment, with its trees, wells and tanks, shaped my childhood. One very different thing then was that teachers lived in the village. The teachers who taught us stayed among us, unlike today when many commute from nearby towns.
Every evening, a small group of us would go to our teacher's house and study until late at night, sometimes till 11 pm, before returning early in the morning. The bond between teachers, students and parents was extremely strong. My father would often ask the teachers how I was doing and tell them to correct me if I went wrong. Because of that trust, teachers took a personal interest in shaping our future. I strongly feel that the relationship between parents and teachers is very important.
One teacher who influenced me deeply was my mathematics teacher, Narasimham. He not only taught mathematics but also guided us in many aspects of life. He introduced us to cricket when none of us in the village even knew what the game was. Sometimes, if he liked a film, he would take me along with him to watch it. It was a friendly, family-like environment while still maintaining respect for the teacher.
After Class 10, I moved to Nellore for Classes 11 and 12 and studied in English medium for the first time. Coming from a village background, there was a fear of speaking English, although I was reasonably good at studies. Fortunately, I found excellent friends who were active in academics, sports and other activities. We studied together as a team, and many of us remain close friends even today. We all worked hard and eventually secured engineering seats.
How did you overcome the transition from Telugu medium to English medium in higher studies?
The real challenge was not English itself but the fear of speaking it. In fact, that fear did not disappear during intermediate and remained with me to some extent even during engineering. It gradually reduced only after I joined DRDO. My grammar, essay writing and academics were never a problem, but speaking English was difficult because, in the village, people would often make fun of someone who tried to speak English. Overcoming that psychological barrier took time and happened step by step.
Even during engineering, nearly 90% of the students were Telugu-speaking, so there was very little need to converse extensively in English. That changed after joining DRDO, where English became essential in daily work. I studied engineering at JNTU Anantapur, where hostel life taught me the value of teamwork. The hostel environment meant that you were constantly surrounded by people, studying, travelling and participating in activities together. That experience helped me learn how to work effectively as part of a team, which later became very important in my career.
The professors were excellent, and we were active not only in academics but also in social and student activities. I cherish my college days immensely, and many of those friendships continue even today. In fact, nearly 200 of my college friends attended my daughter's wedding. Those relationships taught me that individual brilliance alone is not enough; the ability to contribute to a team is equally important. Looking back, those years played a major role in shaping my career and personality.
For a layperson, how is BrahMos different from other missiles used around the world?
Generally, missiles are ballistic in nature, meaning they follow an elliptical path. If a missile has to travel 1,000 kilometres, it first climbs to a certain altitude and then follows an elliptical trajectory towards its target. If you throw a stone, it also follows an elliptical path. Even planets revolve around the Sun in elliptical orbits. That is the basic nature of a ballistic missile.
A cruise missile is different. It flies continuously at a very low altitude, much like an aircraft. It may fly at 10 kilometres, 5 kilometres, 1 kilometre or even as low as 100 metres. The advantage is that enemy radars find it much harder to detect because of horizon limitations. When a missile flies high, radars can detect it more easily, but when it flies low, detection becomes much more difficult. That is why cruise missiles are very effective.
Within cruise missiles, there are different categories. There are subsonic cruise missiles, which travel below the speed of sound, such as the American Tomahawk. BrahMos, on the other hand, is a supersonic cruise missile. It travels at nearly three times the speed of sound while flying at a very low altitude. Because it combines high speed with low-altitude flight, its impact is very high and interception becomes extremely difficult. That is what makes BrahMos special.
Why is BrahMos so difficult to intercept?
It is difficult, very difficult. That is why the next major development is hypersonic missiles, which travel at around Mach 6, or six times the speed of sound. Russia has demonstrated such capabilities, and India is also working in this area.
A few years ago, India tested a hypersonic system for a short duration. Hypersonic missiles use a scramjet engine, and that engine has been developed in India. Recently, the indigenous scramjet engine was successfully tested for 1,200 seconds. This is a significant achievement and gives tremendous confidence that India will soon possess a hypersonic missile capability.
Over the years, India has developed a wide range of missile systems. Prithvi evolved into Prithvi-I, Prithvi-II and the ship-launched Dhanush. Agni evolved into Agni-I, Agni-II, Agni-III, Agni-IV and Agni-V. We have also developed MIRVs, or Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicles, where a single missile can carry multiple warheads to different targets.
In addition, we have the Ballistic Missile Defence Programme, Astra air-to-air missiles, air-to-ground missiles, UAV-launched and drone-launched missiles, anti-tank missiles such as Nag-I, Nag-II and MPATGM, and air-defence systems such as Akash, Akash-NG and Akash Mk-II. Today, I can confidently say that India has become completely self-reliant in missiles. The same is true in many other areas, including radars, sonars, torpedoes, airborne early warning systems, AWACS, tanks, guns, armoured vehicles and ships. This transformation has taken three to four decades, but India has progressed on a very fast trajectory.
Which areas still require greater self-reliance?
There are still some gaps. The major ones are aero engines, ship propulsion systems, advanced sensors, detectors and specialised materials. A lot of R&D is underway in these areas, and I believe that in the coming years we should be able to reduce import dependence significantly.
The confidence of the Armed Forces in DRDO today is much higher than it was 10, 15 or 20 years ago. However, there is always a challenge. The Armed Forces naturally want the latest capabilities immediately, while indigenous development takes time. There is a development cycle of three, four or five years, which creates a natural tension between importing systems and developing them within the country.
India is focusing strongly on self-reliance and advanced technologies. Take hypersonic missiles as an example. Russia has developed them, America is close, and India is also working on them. We may be a few years behind, but we are building those capabilities ourselves. Earlier, major development cycles could take nearly 10 years. Today, many programmes are being completed in around four years, which has significantly improved confidence in indigenous development.
If you look back a decade, indigenous content in the Armed Forces was around 30%. Today it is about 65%. Initiatives such as Make in India, Atmanirbhar Bharat and positive indigenisation lists covering nearly 5,000 items have transformed the ecosystem. My feeling is that in another five or six years, indigenous content could reach close to 80%.
Today, 220 Light Combat Aircraft have been ordered. LCA Mk-II has been sanctioned, and the Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft, a fifth-generation fighter aircraft, has also been approved. We are building our own tanks, helicopters and aircraft carriers. INS Vikrant was developed with more than 75% indigenous content. We have also developed our own artillery systems, whereas earlier we depended on imports such as Bofors.
Private industry has emerged in a big way. Earlier, most work was done by DPSUs such as BDL, HAL and BEL. Today, private companies are developing missiles, bombs, tanks, guns and armoured vehicles. Startups have also become a major force in defence and aerospace. Thousands of startups are working on innovations ranging from components and subsystems to complete systems. Nearly 90% of the drone ecosystem and a significant part of cybersecurity innovation are being driven by startups. Programmes such as DRDO's Technology Development Fund and iDEX have played an important role in encouraging them.
Another important area is semiconductors, where India was once completely import-dependent. The government has taken strong measures, and I believe we will see major progress in this sector in the coming years.
Today, in areas such as missiles and radars, India has either developed capabilities comparable to advanced nations or is in advanced stages of doing so. Defence spending has also increased substantially. The defence budget has risen from about 2.5 lakh crore in 2013-14 to about 7.85 lakh crore today, while DRDO's budget has increased from around 10,000 crore to over 29,000 crore.
All these efforts are helping India become self-reliant. The government's emphasis, particularly through Make in India and Atmanirbhar Bharat, has accelerated indigenous development and reduced dependence on imports. As a result, India is no longer only a major importer of defence equipment; it is also becoming a significant exporter. In 2025-26, defence exports reached about 39,000 crore, compared to 23,666 crore the previous year. I believe exports could cross `50,000 crore within the next few years, positioning India among the leading defence exporters in the world.
Why has India struggled with aero engines, particularly the Kaveri engine, and where do we stand today?
Engine development is a very tough task. It involves advanced material technologies, processing technologies, manufacturing technologies and a large number of complex subsystems. These are highly specialised areas and that is why developing an aircraft engine is one of the most difficult technological challenges.
Coming to the Kaveri engine, I strongly feel that any development programme succeeds best when there is a stable application requirement. Kaveri was originally developed for the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA). However, both programmes were evolving at the same time. As the LCA underwent major design changes and modifications, its requirements changed significantly from what was originally envisaged. As a result, the Kaveri specifications and the final requirements of the LCA no longer matched, which led to the adoption of an imported engine.
Having said that, Kaveri itself has been developed. The dry version of the engine, which produces around 47 kilonewtons of thrust, is available and can be used for certain applications. Every platform has its own requirements in terms of size, weight, power and performance, so the same engine cannot simply be used everywhere.
Today, aircraft engine development is firmly on the national agenda. Discussions, development efforts and programmes are underway, and I believe we will see significant progress in this area in the coming years.
Does the passion that drove India's missile programme in the 1980s still exist today?
Very much. In fact, one of the most intense periods of my career came much later during Mission Shakti, India's anti-satellite test. Towards the end of 2016, Prime Minister Narendra Modi Ji and National Security Advisor Ajit Doval Ji entrusted us with a highly complex mission to demonstrate India's capability to intercept a satellite. The task had to remain completely secret because external pressure could have prevented us from carrying it out, and we were given a target of completing it within two years.
Developing a missile capable of hitting a satellite, working out the trajectories, systems and interception technologies, and doing all of it within that timeframe was a tremendous challenge. People worked till almost 3 am every day, and as Chairman of DRDO, I conducted reviews late into the night. The mission demanded extraordinary dedication, secrecy and teamwork.
We fulfilled that commitment and successfully carried out Mission Shakti. Until the Prime Minister announced it publicly, very few people knew about it. We also ensured minimal debris generation, making it a responsible technology demonstration. The Prime Minister made it clear that India did not want to turn space into a war zone; the objective was simply to demonstrate that the country possessed the capability. It remains one of the most stressful, challenging and rewarding moments of my life.
Have international restrictions ever pushed India to develop technologies on its own?
Certainly. If you look at India's nuclear tests during Dr APJ Abdul Kalam's time, they were conducted under great secrecy because international pressure often follows such programmes. India also faced significant restrictions under regimes such as the MTCR, particularly after the Pokhran tests, when many technologies and systems were denied to us.
The cryogenic engine programme is a classic example. That technology was not made available to India. I often say, thank God they did not give it to us, because we then developed it ourselves. If everything is readily available, there is less motivation to create it independently.
The zeal among Indian scientists has always been very high. They want to achieve something, they want to make India stand tall in the world, and when that determination is combined with government support and national programmes, the country moves forward very rapidly.
Why do many talented engineers choose startups over organisations such as DRDO and ISRO today?
Students who get into IITs are undoubtedly bright, but that does not mean those who study elsewhere are not. Take Dr APJ Abdul Kalam himself — he was not from an IIT. Many IIT graduates have joined DRDO and ISRO, and they continue to do so even today.
What has changed is the ecosystem. Earlier, many IIT graduates went abroad, but today a large majority stay back in India. At the same time, the startup ecosystem has transformed completely. Incubation centres, funding opportunities, mentoring networks and government support have made it much easier for young people to turn ideas into products and companies.
India today has around 2.35 lakh startups, most of them led by young people. Earlier, entrepreneurship often meant becoming an ancillary supplier to a large public-sector company. Today, young entrepreneurs are thinking globally. They are developing drones, launch systems, advanced technologies and innovative products that attract global customers, investors and partners.
This shift from an ancillary mindset to a globally competitive mindset is one of the biggest changes I have seen. Young founders in their twenties are building companies with remarkable ideas and valuations. It is a major transformation and one that will play a significant role in shaping India's future.
As an IIT advisor, what are your priorities, particularly in areas such as AI and defence technology?
My primary focus is on strengthening the research and development culture and producing industry-ready talent for the defence sector. India needs extensive R&D in several advanced technology areas, and institutions such as IIT Hyderabad have an important role to play in that effort.
We are also exploring the possibility of introducing defence technology-oriented courses so that defence industries have access to highly skilled, industry-ready professionals directly from IITs. Building that talent pipeline and strengthening research capabilities are among the key priorities we are looking at.
How have drones and AI changed modern warfare and missile systems?
Historically, warfare has always been technology-driven. It evolved from arrows, horses and elephants to cannons, rockets and missiles. Today, the traditional dimensions of warfare are the Army, Navy and Air Force, but space has become the fourth dimension and cyber the fifth.
If you look at recent conflicts, drones have emerged as a major force. Earlier, warfare relied largely on missiles and conventional military forces. Today, hundreds and thousands of drones are being used on the battlefield. This is a huge shift. Warfare is increasingly becoming contactless. Instead of armies advancing across borders, countries are launching satellites, missiles and drones.
Operation Sindoor is a good example. No soldier crossed the border. It was largely air warfare involving missiles, BrahMos, aircraft, drones, anti-drone systems, anti-aircraft systems and anti-missile systems. It was also important because it was fought largely with indigenous capabilities under Atmanirbhar Bharat. We did not allow a single hostile weapon to penetrate and strike India. Everything was neutralised, demonstrating significant military strength.
Missiles continue to play an important role, as seen in both Operation Sindoor and the Russia-Ukraine conflict. At the same time, Artificial Intelligence is entering every domain. In the military sphere, every weapon system either already has, or will increasingly have, AI integrated into it. Autonomous systems are emerging in a big way and will become a major part of future warfare.
How does India's no-first-use policy align with national security and strategic deterrence?
India's policy continues to be no first use, and there are multiple reasons for that. India is a peace-loving country and has never gone and occupied another nation. The leadership respects and continues to implement that policy.
At the same time, strength is essential. Somebody once asked Dr APJ Abdul Kalam, "You talk about peace, but you are building Agni missiles." His answer was that such systems act as deterrents. When you possess strong strategic capabilities, other countries think twice before threatening or attacking you.
That is the importance of these missile systems. You need to be strong enough that others do not attempt mischief. Once such capabilities are developed, extensive measures are also put in place to protect strategic assets and infrastructure. The details are not something we should discuss publicly, but the necessary safeguards would certainly have been implemented.
What lessons should India draw from the Iran-US-Israel conflict?
The biggest lesson is the growing importance of drones. After the Ukraine-Russia conflict, this is another example where drones have been used extensively and effectively. That is one of the most important observations.
Any country today must invest heavily in advanced drone technologies, whether short-range, long-range or very long-range systems. Drones are required for surveillance, attack missions and a range of other military roles. Countries must also develop drone-launch systems and related technologies. That is one of the key lessons emerging from the Iran-US-Israel conflict.
How effective are anti-drone technologies, and are they becoming more cost-efficient?
A lot of anti-drone technologies are available today. India developed anti-drone systems four to five years ago, including jamming, spoofing, kinetic interception and laser-based systems. India is among the early countries to develop such capabilities, and they were used very effectively during Operation Sindoor.
Anti-drone warfare is a constant cycle of measures and countermeasures. As drones become faster, travel farther and become more sophisticated, defence systems must keep evolving. Their speed, range, structures and even acoustic signatures have changed significantly, requiring continuous technological upgrades.
Cost is also an important factor. If a drone costing a few lakhs is intercepted using a missile worth several crores, that is not economical. Therefore, countries are developing anti-drone systems that cost less than the incoming threat while remaining highly effective. Significant progress has already been made in this area.
How would you compare Operation Sindoor, the Ukraine-Russia war and the Iran-US-Israel conflict?
While the scale and context are different, all three conflicts show similar trends. Air warfare, missile warfare, drone warfare and information or cyber warfare have become dominant elements in modern conflicts.
Aircraft, missiles, drones and cyber capabilities have played major roles across all these theatres. These conflicts clearly indicate the direction warfare is taking. Countries need to invest heavily in drone technologies, missile technologies, cyber capabilities and information warfare because these are increasingly becoming the defining features of modern conflict.
If India was able to stop hostile drones and missiles during Operation Sindoor, why have larger powers struggled against similar threats?
There can be several reasons. One possibility is saturation. Even a strong air-defence system can be overwhelmed if too many threats arrive simultaneously.
Another factor is geography. Protecting a vast area in all directions is extremely difficult. Air-defence coverage depends on how many systems are deployed and how widely they are distributed.
In some cases, countries may have only a limited number of air-defence systems deployed in specific locations. If attacks occur across a wider region, coverage gaps can emerge. That could be one of the reasons why some countries have faced difficulties in stopping all incoming drones and missiles.
Looking back, what have been the most rewarding and most difficult moments of your career?
The most rewarding moment of my career was the success of Mission Shakti, India's anti-satellite test. It was a commitment made to the country's leadership, and successfully accomplishing it was immensely satisfying.
Until the mission succeeded, however, it was also one of the most stressful and tense periods of my life. Career-wise, I believe that being posted to DRDL under Dr APJ Abdul Kalam shaped the trajectory of my entire career.
I have not had many major disappointments. There were occasions when tests failed, and naturally those moments were disappointing. But failures are also the greatest learning opportunities. They force you to analyse deeply, identify problems and improve. So those disappointments were temporary, while the lessons remained valuable.
Mission Shakti remains the most memorable moment of my career. I can never forget the period before the test and the sense of achievement after its success.
How do you view the quality of education and the teacher-student relationship today compared with your own school days?
I feel there was a period, perhaps 10 to 15 years ago, when standards in some colleges and universities had dipped. However, I believe things have improved significantly since then. Many researchers who studied abroad and completed advanced research have returned to India, particularly to IITs and other institutions, helping strengthen both teaching and research culture.
Today, even private engineering colleges have dedicated R&D departments, and faculty members are increasingly involved in research projects with organisations such as DRDO, ISRO and DST. The overall research ecosystem has become much stronger, and that is reflected in the improving global rankings of Indian institutions.
At the same time, I feel the relationship between teachers, students and parents has changed. In our days, parents trusted teachers completely and encouraged them to guide and discipline their children when necessary. Today, that relationship is sometimes weaker. A teacher is a guru, and a strong guru-shishya bond is important. Such relationships cannot be built only inside a classroom; they require trust, interaction and mutual respect.
What qualities are essential for leadership, especially during high-pressure missions?
Taking people along with you, earning their confidence and giving them confidence that the leader is there to support them are among the most important qualities.
A leader must also set ambitious goals before the team and inspire people to achieve them. Confidence in leadership, gaining the trust of people, setting challenging targets and leading from the front are the qualities that matter most.
(TNIE team: Kalyan Tholeti, Prasanna RS, Meghna Nath, Shreya Veronica, Tejal Sinha, Khyati Shah, Siddhardha Gattimi, Darshita Jain)