PARIS: Mali's latest wave of attacks by jihadists and Tuareg rebels is a new chapter in a security crisis that has for years shaped the country.
In 2012, northern Mali was plunged into chaos when ethnic Tuareg rebels launched a campaign for independence or special status.
Jihadists soon joined the rebellion, turning the north into a launchpad for an Islamist insurgency that has since swept into neighbouring Niger and Burkina Faso.
Here are the key moments in Mali's turmoil since 2012.
North falls to jihadists
Since independence in 1960, Mali has faced repeated uprisings by the Tuareg, a nomadic Saharan people of Berber origin, driven by grievances against rule from the south.
In March 2012, soldiers overthrew President Amadou Toumani Toure, accusing him of failing to contain a Tuareg-led separatist rebellion and the advance of Islamist armed groups in the north.
The coup triggered a security crisis that saw Tuareg rebels and jihadists linked to Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) seize major northern towns.
The Tuareg were later pushed aside by jihadist groups, who took control in the region.
France steps in
Jihadists were partially driven back by France's Operation Serval in 2013. That was later replaced in 2014 by the broader counter-terrorism mission Operation Barkhane across the Sahel.
The United Nations also deployed its peacekeeping mission, MINUSMA, taking over from a pan‑African force.
Peace deal
In 2013, Ibrahim Boubacar Keita -- known as IBK -- was elected president.
A peace agreement was signed in 2015 between the government and northern separatist groups.
Despite the deal, jihadist violence continued, increasingly overlapping with deadly communal clashes.
Coups, French withdrawal
Soldiers overthrew IBK in a 2020 coup. A transitional president was appointed but was himself ousted in a second coup in 2021.
General Assimi Goita emerged as head of the ruling junta, gradually abandoning promises of a return to civilian rule.
Relations with Western partners deteriorated. By 2022, French troops and the UN mission were pushed out.
Mali instead turned to the Russian paramilitary group Wagner for security support.
Fighting flares
After eight years of relative calm, fighting flared again in northern Mali in August 2023 between Tuareg‑dominated armed groups and the army.
In September, separatists launched an offensive on the garrison town of Bourem, which the army said it repelled. Both sides reported dozens of deaths.
This renewed separatist activity coincided with a surge in attacks claimed mainly by the Group for the Support of Islam and Muslims (JNIM), an Al‑Qaeda‑linked alliance.
Army retakes Kidal
The Malian army, backed by Wagner fighters -- later replaced by Russia's paramilitary Africa Corps -- captured rebel stronghold Kidal in November 2023, ending years of Tuareg control.
In January 2024, the junta announced the immediate end of the 2015 peace deal.
Heavy army losses
July 2024 saw one of Mali's worst military setbacks in years.
Government forces and their Russian allies suffered heavy losses in clashes with separatist rebels near Tinzaouatene in the north, alongside a jihadist attack.
In September, JNIM claimed a large-scale double attack on the capital Bamako's military airport and the military police training school, killing more than 70 people and wounding 200, according to security sources.
Regional alliance
Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso -- all ruled by military juntas -- formed the Alliance of Sahel States (AES), announcing plans for a 5,000-strong force to combat jihadist groups.
Jihadist blockade
In September 2025, JNIM launched a strategy aimed at strangling Mali's economy, imposing blockades on several towns and on fuel convoys.